Rucking: A Timeless Training Tool

Topics Covered

1. Is Rucking Still a Critical Task for Tactical Populations?

2. Rucking Demands

3. The Equipment

4. Environmental Conditioning

5. Training Highlights for Rucking

Summary

Rucking—carrying weighted loads over varied terrain—is a fundamental part of tactical training. In this article, we break down the key factors that can elevate your rucking performance. We cover how to optimise load progression, boost physical fitness, and ensure your equipment fits perfectly for maximum efficiency. We also emphasise the critical balance between strength and aerobic capacity, and provide tips on tackling environmental challenges like heat and hydration. To wrap it up, we present a structured, progressive template designed to help you develop a rucking programme that enhances tactical readiness while minimising injury risks.

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1. Is Rucking Still a Critical Task for Tactical Populations?

The rapid technological advancements of recent decades in the tactical context have aimed to enhance the efficiency and safety of tactical professionals. Paradoxically, rather than lightening their load, this progress has led to operators carrying increasingly heavy equipment, essential for both mission success and personal protection. Meanwhile, innovations in vehicles and transport have shifted much of the long-distance travel from foot to motorised means. Yet, the need remains for operators to traverse short to medium distances on foot, often under intense conditions, navigating obstacles or evacuating injured personnel - all while bearing the full weight of their gear. Research shows that, equipment as simple as body armour or tactical boots negatively affects body mechanics and postural stability (1).

As such, loaded marching, also known as rucking, remains foundational in many tactical settings. Beyond its logistical necessity, rucking is integral to operational readiness, simulating real-world scenarios that demand endurance, resilience, and adaptability (2). Still, many factors influence the ability to carry a load and march. These include the mass of the load, marching speed, terrain factors such as gradient and surface type, load distribution, load volume, and the operator's physical condition (3).

2. Rucking Demands

For years, rucking training focused primarily on endurance. However, it is now understood that the ability to carry loads is not accurately correlated with performance in unloaded running. This is because a lighter body build, which is well-suited to unloaded running, is less capable of handling heavy load carriage. Therefore, recent decades have highlighted the crucial dual demands of strength and endurance in rucking, with several strength tests identified as strong predictors of load march performance. Key factors include upper torso and trunk flexion strength, knee flexion and extension strength, and plantar flexion strength. Core stability and strength in the extension chain are also vital for loaded marching. Naturally, aerobic fitness, particularly absolute V̇O2max, is another significant predictor of marching performance (3). Thus, endurance is not the only crucial factor for rucking; strength is also essential for load stabilisation. A well-developed upper-body posterior chain and strong lower body work together to reduce fatigue, maintain posture under load, minimise joint strain, and enhance stride (the complete cycle of movement during walking or running) efficiency. At the same time, cardiovascular and muscular endurance are key for sustaining prolonged effort, delaying fatigue, and maximising oxygen delivery to active muscles (4).

Even with proper training, rucking presents significant biomechanical and physiological challenges. Biomechanically, the load and fatigue substantially influence joint forces, particularly in the lower extremities. Marching efficiency starts to decrease sharply when loads exceed 15% of body weight, indicating that even moderate relative loads can significantly affect biomechanical performance(5), leading to altered gait mechanics (the pattern of movement during walking or running), such as shorter strides, longer stance times (the duration during which your foot is in contact with the ground), and an increase in stride width and variability as fatigue sets in. This is typically the result of reduced motor control and muscle fatigue, which can increase the risk of acute injuries, such as ankle sprains or dislocations (2,6).

Physiologically, rucking places considerable strain on the cardiovascular system to support the heightened metabolic demands, with energy expenditure rising in proportion to the weight of the load and the difficulty of the terrain. Additionally, compensatory muscle activation, especially in the back and shoulders, is essential for stabilising the load, further contributing to the overall physical demands(2,7). It appears that those with higher V̇O2peak had lower heart rates, body core temperatures and greater motivation during rucking (8).

These demands significantly increase the risk of overuse injuries due to repetitive loading patterns, particularly in the musculoskeletal system. Common issues include back pain, knee and hip pain or discomfort, lower leg injuries, and ankle problems all of which stem from repeated stress, inadequate workload management, and improper biomechanics. Soft tissue injuries, such as blisters, chafing, and abrasions, are also frequent but tend to be less severe, typically caused by prolonged load contact and repetitive movement. In many cases, inadequate physical preparation and recovery can lead to long-term rucking-induced conditions, such as chronic overuse syndromes and degenerative changes, particularly in the lumbar spine (7).

3. The Equipment

All operator equipment must be properly adjusted to prevent issues, with tactical boots being one of the most crucial pieces, particularly during rucking. These boots significantly affect both foot health and gait. Whilst their role in preventing acute injuries remains debated, their impact on gait biomechanics is undeniable. Tactical boots tend to reduce ankle mobility, stabilise the rearfoot, and decrease stride variability. If an increase in stride variability leads to a higher incidence of acute injuries, a reduction in this variability may contribute to a higher risk of overuse injuries due to the repeated loading of the same biological structures over time (repetitive loading patterns) (9–11). Therefore, properly fitted boots (ideally, boots with minimal impact on ankle mobility) can help prevent overuse injuries like stress fractures (10,11). At the same time, avoiding socks of cotton preferring materials like merino wool or high-performance synthetic, use double-layer socks (using a thin liner sock underneath a thicker outer) was advised to reduce friction and wick moisture away from the skin avoiding blisters, chafing, and abrasions. For longer distances, it is also advised to regularly inspect and change socks to maintain foot hygiene and prevent injuries (3).

Proper load distribution of the equipment is fundamental: heavy rucksacks, especially when used in conjunction with body armour, shift the centre of gravity, increasing the risk of injury. For backpacks, operators should use modular systems that allow for size and load distribution adjustments. When packing, it is important to place heavier items higher for flat terrain but distribute them evenly for hilly terrain to enhance stability. Where possible, properly adjusted hip and sternum straps should be used, as these can shift the load strain, reducing back strain and conditions such as rucksack palsy (10,11).

4. Environmental Conditioning

Our body maintains homeostasis through several mechanisms, each activated to varying degrees depending on the specific stress imposed. One of these mechanisms is thermoregulation, which is critical during physical exertion. During loaded marching, core temperature increases significantly due to sustained physical activity and the insulating effects of equipment. High-intensity efforts, when combined with heavy and poorly ventilated clothing, exacerbate metabolic heat production by retaining heat and impairing the body’s natural cooling mechanisms. This challenge is particularly pronounced in hot environments, where clothing that impedes sweat evaporation can lead to heat stress and heat-related illnesses (3,10,11).

This risk is further amplified during group-paced rucking (also referred to as formation-paced loaded marching), where individuals often push themselves harder due to group dynamics. The sense of belonging to the group and the desire to avoid falling behind frequently result in extreme physical efforts, potentially exceeding safe limits. While such sessions are valuable for developing determination, mental resilience, focus, and stress management, they also carry a heightened risk of injuries and heat-related illnesses if not properly managed.

To mitigate these risks during rucking sessions, especially in challenging environmental conditions, it is essential to adopt key preparatory measures:

Assess Environmental Conditions: Always account for conditions such as the Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) or the Windchill Index (WI) when planning the session. These indices provide critical insight into the risks posed by heat or cold. You can find a deeper understanding of these indices in our article, "Analysis of the NATO Publication: Management of Heat and Cold Stress Guidance to NATO Medical Personnel."

Adapt Clothing and Gear: In hot environments, wear loose-fitting, breathable clothing to allow for better air circulation and heat dissipation. Avoid using body armour during sessions with high WBGT to enhance ventilation and reduce heat retention (3).

Ensure Proper Hydration: Hydration is crucial for maintaining thermoregulation. Utilise hydration systems like CamelBaks, which are practical and encourage consistent water intake. Dehydration not only exacerbates increases in core temperature but also significantly diminishes physical and cognitive performance. For sessions longer than 30 minutes, consider adding electrolytes or mineral salts to the water to improve fluid retention and replace essential salts lost through sweat (3).

Monitor Physical Load: Use tools such as heart rate monitors or perceived exertion scales to gauge the internal load of the session. Monitoring helps ensure that individuals stay within safe exertion limits, reducing the likelihood of overexertion or injury  (3). Another important consideration is monitoring the informal load, which is often overlooked but, depending on the context, could represent a significant portion of the daily load (7).

Emergency Preparedness: Implementing the measures mentioned above significantly reduces the risk of injuries and illnesses during rucking sessions. However, it is crucial to remain vigilant and prepared for critical situations. Developing a comprehensive protocol for emergencies, particularly during group rucking sessions, can make the difference between life and death. For all the operators, having access to and using effective cooling measures— such as cold-water immersion or cooling towels — can be critical for rapidly reducing core temperature in cases of heat stress (3).

5. Training Highlights for Rucking

The combination of resistance and endurance training significantly improved load carriage performance time. However, improvements were not observed with resistance or endurance training alone. This suggests that a combination of resistance training and aerobic fitness is essential for enhancing performance in high-intensity, short- to medium-duration load-bearing tasks. The enhanced load carriage can be attributed to muscle strength and endurance improvements, which support joint mechanics and load distribution, thereby enhancing loaded locomotion mechanics and reducing fatigue (3,4,7,12). Another important consideration is that the use of heavy equipment can compromise stability and mobility; thus, maintaining a stimulus for developing these abilities is also essential (1).

Strength sessions should prioritise exercises that enhance not only strength but also stability and proprioception. In practice, this means focusing on multi-joint, compound movements as the primary foundation, with single-joint, machine-based exercises serving as complementary components. For example, in lower body training, movements such as squats, lunges, weighted step-ups, calf raises, and deadlift variations should form the cornerstone of a program. However, knee extension and flexion machine-based exercises may also be incorporated to provide a localised hypertrophy stimulus for the quadriceps and hamstrings (1,12). These exercises contribute to improving knee joint mechanics and resilience under load, helping to minimise the adverse effects of axial loading on the knee joint.

For the upper body, the focus should shift to the posterior chain and shoulders, which are critical for rucking performance hamstrings (1,12). Exercises such as inverted rows, push presses, bent-over rows, and overhead presses are invaluable. These exercises incorporate horizontal pulling and vertical pushing movements, both of which are essential for developing the upper body strength and endurance required for carrying heavy loads, such as backpacks.

It is also vital to consider the role of the hip muscles during rucking. The gluteal muscles, particularly the gluteus maximus and medius, are crucial for maintaining pelvic stability and are involved in almost every movement related to the lower extremities. Weakness or underdevelopment of these muscles (commonly referred to as "lazy hips") can lead to compensations in other areas, such as the lower back, knees, or smaller stabilising muscles (13). Rucking could amplify these compensations due to the added axial load, often resulting in overuse injuries, such as iliotibial band syndrome.

To address this, incorporating carrying exercises such as the farmer’s carry, suitcase carry, sandbag carry, or kettlebell rack carry is highly effective. These movements promote dynamic postural stability, directly supporting the physical demands of carrying a backpack. Additionally, specific glute-strengthening exercises, such as the glute bridge, hip thrust, or Romanian deadlift, should also be integrated to develop the glutes further and enhance hip control (14).

Despite these considerations, it is critical to maintain a balanced ratio between pull and push movements, as well as between the anterior and posterior chains. Such balance is essential to prevent overdeveloping one area at the expense of another, which could elevate the risk of injury. A practical way to maintain this balance is through supersets, pairing each exercise with its antagonist counterpart(1).

Below, we present an example of a full-body strength session tailored for integration into a rucking programme. While this session is designed as a comprehensive approach, it is worth noting that a split routine can also be used to distribute the workload across multiple days. This example is intended to illustrate the concepts outlined above and should be adjusted based on individual needs and training availability.

An example of a full-body strength session that is part of a rucking programme.

In terms of cardiorespiratory sessions, it is important to consider the variation in training programs, such as long, slow distance, pace, interval training, fartlek, and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) to guarantee variability in the stimulus and avoid high volume of training. During weeks when rucking sessions are applied, you can utilise other methods besides running, such as indoor cycling or rowing, to maintain the cardiovascular stimulus while reducing impact and preventing overuse injuries (1,12).

Rucking once per week (which proves more effective than bi-weekly) and training twice or more per month, combined with resistance and endurance training over 8 to 12 weeks, form an effective training approach for achieving improvements. Traditionally, training for loaded marching primarily consisted of long and extensive walks. However, two main methodologies for load marching have emerged: long distances with moderate loads and short distances with heavy loads. Both approaches yield improvements when well-programmed and executed, but it appears that high-intensity programs are more effective than longer distances (3,12). The main differences and guidelines are:

Guidelines for Programming Rucking Sessions

 In short distances, it is also possible to incorporate interval-style pacing to simulate real-world intensity changes. Example training sessions are:

Basic Interval Training Session:

Warm-Up: 10–15 minutes of walking with a light load.

Main Session:

2-minute fast-paced rucking (near-max effort) at 70% body weight.

3 minutes of steady walking (active recovery) at a moderate pace.

Repeat 6–10 cycles.

Cool-down: 5–10 minutes of walking with a lighter load, followed by stretching

Hill Intervals:

Warm-Up: 10–15 minutes of walking on flat terrain with a light load.

Main Session:

Ruck uphill for 60 to 90 seconds with 50 to 60% of body weight at high intensity (Zone 4–5).

Walk downhill slowly (active recovery, Zone 2–3).

Repeat for 8–12 cycles.

Cool-down: 5–10 minutes walking flat terrain, focusing on recovery.

Shuttle Intervals (Real-World Simulation):

Warm-Up: 10–15 minutes of dynamic movements and light rucking.

Main Session:

Perform a 100 to 200 m sprint at maximum effort with a light load.

Drop to prone and simulate picking up an object or casualty weighing 65 to 75% of your body weight.

Drag or transport the weight for 100 to 1000m (adjust the distance as needed for realism).

Walk 50 m at a steady pace for recovery.

Repeat 8–12 cycles.

Cool-Down: Walk at a relaxed pace for 5–10 minutes.

To guarantee an adequate progression in these sessions it is important to start with fewer cycles and gradually build up to the upper limit as fitness improves. Over time, increase also the load (up to 70% body weight) or reduce the recovery interval to make the workout more challenging.

To finish, it is important to discuss another key factor: rucking velocity.

The recommended pace for loaded marching typically ranges between 4 to 6km/h, with 5km/h considered optimal for balancing speed and endurance. However, the appropriate pace can vary based on factors such as the load carried, terrain, and individual fitness levels.

Training at a pace that is too fast can increase the risk of injury, while a pace that is too slow may not adequately prepare personnel for operational demands. As velocity increases, the efficiency of walking decreases compared to running. At speeds above approximately 8km/h, unloaded running becomes more efficient than unloaded walking. When carrying a 20 kg load—representing the average load during marches—the "breaking point" shifts to 7.8km/h. Smaller individuals tend to have a lower breaking point between walking and running (6.5km/h with a 20 kg load) compared to more robust individuals, whose breaking point is 8.3km/h (3). Thus, the decision to march or run, even with a high load, is intimately linked to the velocity. Ultimately, the rucking velocity should align with operational requirements, and the training program should allow for a gradual progression toward this goal.

Use our free template to create your rucking program!

See Our Template

References

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2. Knapik J, Reynolds K. Load Carriage in Military Operations : a Review of Historical, Physiological, Biomechanical, and Medical Aspects. 1997.

3. Research and Technology Organisation. Optimizing Operational Physical Fitness. Vol. AC/323(HFM. 2009.

4. Orr RM, Dawes JJ, Lockie RG, Godeassi DP. The Relationship Between Lower-Body Strength and Power, and Load Carriage Tasks: A Critical Review. Int J Exerc Sci [Internet]. 2019;12(6):1001–22. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31523356%0Ahttp://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=PMC6719820

5. Lloyd R, Cooke C. Biomechanical differences associated with two different load carriage systems and their relationship to economy. Hum Mov. 2011;12(1):65–74.

6. Bloch AE, Steckenrider JJ, Zifchock RA, Freisinger GM, Bode VG, Elkin-Frankston S. Effect of Fatigue on Movement Patterns During a Loaded Ruck March. Mil Med. 2024;189(1–2):E15–20.

7. Orr R, Pope R, Lopes TJA, Leyk D, Blacker S, Bustillo-Aguirre BS, et al. Soldier load carriage, injuries, rehabilitation and physical conditioning: An international approach. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(8).

8. Oeschger R, Roos L, Wyss T, Buller MJ, Veenstra BJ, Gilgen-Ammann R. Influence of Soldiers’ Cardiorespiratory Fitness on Physiological Responses and Dropouts During a Loaded Long-distance March. Mil Med. 2023;188(7–8):E1903–9.

9. Ņesteroviča-Petrikova D. Biomechanical Aspects of Military Footwear Usage and their Relationship with Lower Extremity Overuse Injuries Doctoral. Riga Strandis University; 2024.

10. Brown P. Physical Training for Loaded Marching Performance among British Army Recruits. University of Southampton: Faculty of Sport, Education & Social Sciences; 2009.

11. Hauschild V, Roy T, Grier T, Schuh A, Jones B. Foot Marching, Load Carriage, And Injury Risk. 2016.

12. Orr R, Pope R, Johnston V, Coyle J. Load Carriage: Minimising Soldier Injuries Through Physical Conditioning – a Narrative Review. J Mil Veterans’ Heal [Internet]. 2010;18(3). Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258883927%0ALoad

13. Zhu W. Function of gluteus maximus and lower limbs injury in a global perspective. Third Int Conf Biol Eng Med Sci. 2024;

14. National Strength and Conditioning Association. Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. 3rd ed. Baechle TR, Earle RW, editors. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 2008.